图书简介

Part 1. Markets and Economics Section 1: Industry Structure and Characteristics 1. Performance 1.1 Refinery Supply Chains 1.1.1 Input-Output Model 1.1.2 Infrastructure 1.1.3 Location 1.1.4 Commercial Requirements 1.2 Performance 1.3 Refinery Economics 1.4 Refining Yields 1.5 Refining Margins 1.5.1 Gross Margin 1.5.2 Net Margin and Netback 1.5.3 Application 1.6 Margin Comparisons 1.6.1 Sweet vs. Sour Crude 1.6.2 Cracker vs. Coker Refinery 1.7 Factors That Impact Margins 1.8 Crack Spreads 1.9 Market Data References 2. Products 2.1 Overview 2.2 Petroleum Gases 2.2.1 Methane 2.2.2 Ethane 2.2.3 Propane 2.2.4 Butane 2.2.5 Natural Gas Liquids 2.3 Light Distillates 2.3.1 Naphthas 2.3.2 Gasolines 2.4 Middle Distillates 2.4.1 Jet Fuel 2.4.2 Kerosene 2.4.3 Automotive Diesel 2.4.4 Marine Diesel 2.4.5 Light Fuel Oil 2.5 Heavy Fuel Oils 2.6 Specialty Products 2.6.1 Base Oils and Lubricants 2.6.2 Engine Oils 2.6.3 Greases 2.6.4 Waxes 2.6.5 Bitumen 2.6.6 Petroleum Coke 2.6.7 Carbon Black References 3. Processes 3.1 Overview 3.2 Separation 3.2.1 Perfect Batch Distillation 3.2.2 Distillation Curves 3.2.3 Fractions 3.2.4 Atmospheric Distillation 3.2.5 Vacuum Distillation 3.3 Conversion 3.3.1 Thermal Cracking 3.3.2 Catalytic Cracking 3.3.3 Hydrocracking 3.3.4 Coking 3.4 Finishing 3.4.1 Hydrotreating 3.4.2 Catalytic Reforming 3.4.3 Alkylation 3.4.4 Isomerization References 4. Prices 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Price Formation 4.3 Global Oil and Product Markets 4.4 Price Characteristics 4.4.1 Prices are Volatile 4.4.2 Prices are Unpredictable 4.4.3 Business Cycle Impacts are Periodic 4.4.4 Price Shocks 4.4.5 Market Factors Dominate Price Signals 4.4.6 Private Factors are Secondary in Price Formation 4.5 Supply and Demand 4.5.1 Supply Curves 4.5.2 Demand Curves 4.5.3 Equilibrium 4.6 Market Factors 4.6.1 Demand 4.6.2 Supply 4.6.3 Production Cost 4.6.4 OPEC 4.6.5 Spare Production Capacity 4.6.6 Supply Disruptions 4.6.7 Technology Impacts 4.7 Private Factors 4.7.1 Quality 4.7.2 Yield 4.8 World Production circa 2017 4.9 Refined Product Prices References 5. Potpourri 5.1 Business Model 5.1.1 Required Spending 5.1.2 Discretionary Spending 5.1.3 Capital Investments 5.2 Company Classification 5.2.1 Firm Type 5.2.2 Ownership 5.2.3 Level of Integration 5.2.4 Business Objectives 5.3. U.S. and World Capacity Trends 5.3.1 Distillation 5.3.2 Coking 5.3.3 Catalytic Cracking 5.3.4 Hydrocracking 5.3.5 Hydrotreating 5.3.6 Reforming, Alkylation, Isomerization 5.3.7 Aromatics and Lubricants 5.3.8 Hydrogen 5.3.9 Sulfur 5.3.10 Asphalt 5.4. U.S. Capacity Correlations 5.5 Market Valuation 5.6 Capital Investment References Section 2: Cost Estimation and Complexity 6. Cost Estimation 6.1 Construction Cost Factors 6.1.1 ISBL 6.1.2 USGC Reference 6.1.3 Project Type 6.1.4 Unit Addition vs. Grassroots Refinery 6.1.5 Process Technology 6.1.6 Process Severity 6.1.7 Unit Requirements 6.1.8 Contract Type 6.1.9 Actual vs. Estimated Cost 6.1.10 Time 6.1.11 Location 6.2 Unit Cost 6.2.1 Source Data 6.2.2 Sample Size 6.2.3 Normalization 6.3 Cost Functions 6.3.1 Specification 6.3.2 Dependent Variable 6.3.3 Parameter Estimation 6.3.4 Data Processing 6.3.5 Data Exclusion 6.3.6 Cost Envelopes 6.4 USGC Grassroots Construction Cost 6.5 Operating Cost Factors 6.5.1 Common vs. Unique Factors 6.5.2 Utility Prices 6.5.3 Capacity, Complexity, Age 6.5.4 Time 6.5.5 Location 6.5.6 Exceptional Events 6.6 Operating Expenses 6.6.1 Data Sources 6.6.2 Consolidation Levels 6.7 U.S. Operating Cost Statistics, 2010-2014 References 7. Refinery Complexity 7.1 Ideal Refinery 7.2 Nelson Complexity Index 7.2.1 Motivation 7.2.2 Complexity Factor 7.2.3 Refinery Complexity 7.3 Complexity Factors 7.3.1 Definition 7.3.2 Measurement 7.3.3 Complexity Cross Factor 7.3.4 Uncertainty 7.3.5 Traditional Approach 7.4 Refinery Complexity 7.5 U.S. and World Statistics circa 2018 7.5.1 Regional Capacity 7.5.2 U.S. Refining Complexity 7.5.3 Largest World Refineries 7.5.4 Conversion Capacity 7.5.5 FCC-Equivalent Capacity 7.6 Complexity Equation 7.7 Cost Estimation 7.8 Complexity Factor at Reference Capacity 7.8.1 Specification 7.8.2 U.S. CFRC Statistics References 8. Classification 8.1 Refinery Categories 8.2 Very Simple Refinery 8.3 Simple Refinery 8.4 Complex Refinery 8.5 Krotz Springs, Louisiana 8.6 St. Paul Park, Minnesota 9. Complexity Applications 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Complexity Functional 9.2.1 Reference Capacity Approach Extension 9.2.2 Factor Functional Average 9.2.3 Evaluation 9.2.4 Closed-Form Expressions 9.2.5 Comparison 9.2.6 U.S. Refinery Complexity 9.3 Complexity Moments 9.4 Spatial Complexity 9.5 Replacement Cost 9.6 Sales Price Models 9.6.1 Asset Transactions 9.6.2 Formulation 9.6.3 Constraints 9.7 Complexity Barrels 9.8 Inverse Problem 9.8.1 Three Refinery Example 9.8.2 Matrix Formulation References 10. Modern Refineries 10.1 Hydrocracker 10.2 Lubes 10.3 Integrated/Petrochemical Section 3: Crude Oil and Properties 11. Origin and Composition 11.1 Geologic Time 11.2 Generation, Migration and Accumulation 11.2.1 Source Rock 11.2.2 Generation 11.2.3 Migration 11.2.4 Accumulation 11.2.5 Sedimentary Basins 11.3 The Hydrocarbon Source 11.3.1 Origin 11.3.2 Kerogen Type 11.3.3 Oil Window 11.3.4 Transformation Sequence 11.4 Molecular Composition 11.4.1 Naming Organic Chemicals 11.4.2 Early Classifications 11.4.3 Hydrocarbons 11.4.4 Paraffin (Alkane) Series 11.4.5 Naphthene (Cycloparaffin) Series 11.4.6 Aromatic (Benzene) Series 11.5 Crude Oil Classification 11.5.1 Component Groups 11.5.2 Ternary Diagram 11.5.3 Tissot-Welte Classification 11.5.4 Crude Oil Classes 11.5.6 Marine vs. Nonmarine Organic Matter 11.5.7 High Sulfur vs. Low Sulfur Oils 11.6 Alteration and Thermal Maturity Pathways 11.6.1 Thermal Alteration 11.6.2 Deasphalting 11.6.3 Biodegradation 11.6.4 Water Washing Reference 12. Crude Quality 12.1 Indicators 12.1.1 Color 12.1.2 Density 12.1.3 Heteroatoms 12.1.4 Chemical Structure 12.1.5 Viscosity 12.2 Classification 12.3 Blends of Crude Oils 12.3.1 Additive Properties 12.3.2 Nonadditive Properties References 13. Distillation Profile 13.1 Distillation Curves 13.2 Laboratory Methods 13.2.1 Standards 13.2.2 ASTM D86 13.2.3 ASTM D1160 13.2.4 ASTM D2892 13.2.5 ASTM D2887 13.2.6 ASTM D6352, D7169 13.3 Hempel Method 13.3.1 Procedure 13.3.2 40 mmHg Pressure Correction 13.3.3 Temperatures Beyond 790 DegreesF 13.3.4 Gravity Midpercent 13.3.5 Heavy Hydrocarbons 13.4 Distillation Profile Summary 13.5 Hasting Field, Texas 13.6 North Slope Crude, Alaska References 14. Crude Properties 14.1 Bayon Choctaw and West Hackberry Blends 14.2 Crude Oil Assay 14.3 Chemical Properties 14.3.1 Elemental Analysis 14.2.2 PNA Composition 14.3.3 Carbon Residue 14.4 Composition 14.4.1 Carbon Hydrogen Ratio 14.4.2 Sulfur 14.4.3 Nitrogen 14.4.4 Metals 14.4.5 Asphaltenes 14.4.6 Resins 14.4.7 Waxes 14.4.8 Salt Content 14.4.9 Acid Number 14.5 Physical Properties 14.5.1 Molecular Weight 14.5.2 API Gravity 14.5.3 UOP Characterization Factor 14.5.4 Viscosity 14.5.5 Pour Point 14.5.6 Reid Vapor Pressure References 15. Fraction Characterization 15.1 Correlation Relations 15.2 Carbon Hydrogen Weight Ratio 15.3 Carbon Residue 15.4 Asphaltene Content 15.5 Molecular Weight 15.6 Aniline Point 15.7 Smoke Point 15.8 Viscosity 15.9 Refractive Index 15.10 Cloud Point 15.11 Pour Point 15.12 Freezing Point 15.13 Cetane Index 15.14 Molecular Type Composition References Section 4: Fuel Specifications 16. Standards, Specifications and Fuel Quality 16.1 Types of Specifications 16.2 Consensus Specifications Definitions 16.3 Test Methods 16.4 Transportation Fuel Specifications 16.4.1 Gasoline - ASTM D4814 16.4.2 Jet Fuel - ASTM D1653 16.4.3 Diesel - ASTM D975 16.4.4 European Automotive Fuels 16.5 Mandatory and Suggested Specifications 16.6 Enforcement 16.7 Fuel Quality 16.8 Properties Not in Specifications References 17. Gasoline 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Octane Number 17.3 Volatility 17.3.1 Vapor Pressure 17.3.2 Distillation Profile 17.3.3 Vapor-Liquid Ratio 17.3.4 Vapor Lock Index 17.3.5 Drivability Index 17.3.6 Volatility Specifications and Schedules 17.4 Composition 17.5 Corrosion 17.6 Storage and Stability 17.7 Energy Content 17.7.1 Heating Value 17.7.2 Power 17.7.3 Fuel Economy 17.8 Additives and Blending Components 17.9 Fuel Ethanol for Blending 17.9.1 Purity 17.9.2 Water, Methanol, Chloride Content 17.9.3 Acidity 17.9.4 Sulfur Content 17.9.5 Denaturants 17.9.6 Workmanship 17.10 Aviation Gasoline References 18. Jet Fuels 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Specifications 18.3 Fluidity 18.4 Volatility 18.5 Stability 18.6 Heat Content 18.7 Combustion Characteristics 18.8 Composition 18.9 Lubricity 18.10 Corrosion 18.11 Contaminants 18.12 Additives References 19. Diesel Fuel 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Specification 19.3 Cetane Number 19.4 Distillation 19.5 Flash Point 19.6 Lubricity 19.7 Ash Content 19.8 Carbon Residue 19.9 Low Temperature Operability 19.10 Stability 19.11 Blendstocks 19.12 Biodiesel 19.13 Other Middle Distillate Products References 20. Product Blending 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Gasoline Blendstocks 20.3 Reid Vapor Pressure 20.3.1 Theoretical Method 20.3.2 Blending Indices 20.4 Octane Blending 20.5 Blending for Other Properties 20.6 Gasoline Blending Case Study 20.7 Ethanol Blending 20.8 Diesel and Jet Fuel Blendstocks References Part 2 - Technology Section 5: Separation Processes 21. Crude Oil Desalting 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Desalting Technology 21.2.1 General Description 21.2.2 Tight Emulsions and Metal Containing Organic Compounds References 22. Crude Oil Distillation 2.1 Introduction 22.2 Atmospheric Distillation 22.2.1 General Description 22.2.2 Front-End Design Configurations 22.2.3 Light Naphtha Stabilizer Column 22.3 Vacuum Distillation References 23. Solvent Deasphalting 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Solvent Deasphalting Technology 23.2.1 General Description 23.2.2 Bitumen Froth Treatment 23.3 Deasphalting 23.3.1 Oil Solubility 23.3.2 Asphaltenes References Section 6: Residue Conversion Processes 24. Visbreaking 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Visbreaking Technology 24.2.1 Feed Material 24.2.2 General Description 24.2.3 Hydrovisbreaking and Hydrogen Donor Visbreaking 24.3 Thermal Cracking 24.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 24.3.2 Conversion 24.3.3 Equivalent Residence Time 24.4 Visbreaker Operation 24.4.1 Operating Parameters 24.4.2 Fuel Properties 24.4.3 Feed Pretreatment References 25. Coking 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Coking Technology 25.2.1 Feed Material 25.2.2 Delayed Coking 25.2.3 Fluid Coking 25.3 Thermal Carbonization 25.3.1 Reaction Chemistry and Phase Separation 25.3.2 Role of Solids 25.4 Delayed Coker Operation 25.4.1 Operating Parameters 25.4.2 Coke Properties 25.4.3 Fuel Properties 25.4.4 Yield Estimation 25.5 Fluid Coker Operation 25.5.1 Operating Parameters 25.5.2 Fuel Properties 25.5.3 Yield Estimates References 26. Residue Hydroconversion 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Residue Hydroconversion Technology 26.2.1 Feed Material 26.2.2 Reactor Types 26.2.3 Fixed Bed Residue Hydroconversion 26.2.4 Moving Bed Residue Hydroconversion 26.2.5 Ebullated Bed Residue Hydroconversion 26.5.6 Slurry Bed Residue Hydroconversion 26.3 Thermal Conversion Combined with Catalytic Hydrotreating 26.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 26.3.2 Sediment Formation 26.3.3 Residue Hydroconversion Catalysts 26.4 Residue Hydroconversion Operation 26.4.1 Operating Parameters 26.4.2 Product Yields References 27. Fluid Catalytic Cracking 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Fluid Catalytic Cracking Technology 27.2.1 Feed Material 27.2.2 General Description 27.2.3 Residue Fluid Catalytic Cracking 27.2.4 FCC for Petrochemicals Production 27.3 Catalytic Cracking 27.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 27.3.2 Conversion 27.3.3 FCC Catalysts 27.3.4 Catalyst Deactivation and Equilibrium Catalyst 27.3.5 Catalyst Additives 27.4 Fluid Catalytic Cracking Operation 27.4.1 Operating Parameters 27.4.2 Pressure Balance 27.4.3 Heat Balance 27.4.4 Fuel Properties 27.4.5 Feed Pretreating 27.4.6 Yield Estimation References 28. Hydrocracking 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Hydrocracking Technology 28.2.1 Feed Material 28.2.2 General Description 28.2.3 Hydroisomerization to Produce Lubricant Base Oil 28.2.4 Hydrodewaxing 28.4.5 Mild Hydrocracking 28.3 Catalytic Hydrocracking 28.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 28.3.2 Conversion 28.3.3 Hydrocracking Catalysts 28.3.4 Competitive Adsorption 28.4 Hydrocracker Operation 28.4.1 Operating Parameters 28.4.2 Fuel Properties 28.4.3 Yield Estimates References Section 7: Distillate, Naphtha, and Gas Conversion Processes 29. Hydrotreating 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Hydrotreating Technology 29.2.1 Feed Material 29.2.2 General Description 29.3 Catalytic Hydrotreating 29.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 29.3.2 Reaction Thermodynamics 29.3.3 Conversion 29.3.4 Hydrotreating Catalysts 29.4 Hydrotreater Operation References 30. Butane and Naphtha Hydroisomerization 30.1 Introduction 30.2 C4-C6 Hydroisomerization Technology 30.2.1 Feed Material 30.2.2 General Description 30.2.3 Process Configurations with Recycle 30.3 Catalytic Hydroisomerization 30.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 30.3.2 Reaction Thermodynamics 30.3.3 Hydroisomerization Catalysts 30.4 C4-C6 Hydroisomerization Operation 30.4.1 Operating Parameters 30.4.2 Fuel Properties References 31. Catalytic Naphtha Reforming 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Naphtha Reforming Technology 31.2.1 Feed Material 31.2.2 General Description 31.2.3 Catalyst Regeneration Configurations 31.2.4 Catalyst Regeneration 31.2.5 Aromatization for Petrochemical Production 31.3 Catalytic Naphtha Reforming 31.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 31.3.2 Conventional Reforming Catalysts 31.4 Catalytic Naphtha Reforming Operation 31.4.1 Operating Conditions 31.4.2 Fuel Properties 31.4.3 Yield Estimation References 32. Aliphatic Alkylation 32.1 Introduction 32.2 Aliphatic Alkylation Technology 32.2.1 Feed Material 32.2.2 HF Catalyzed Aliphatic Alkylation 32.2.3 H2SO4 Catalyzed Aliphatic Alkylation 32.2.4 Comparison of HF and H2SO4 Catalyzed Processes 32.3 Reaction Chemistry 32.3.1 Liquid Acid Catalysts 32.3.2 Solid Acid Catalysts 32.4 Aliphatic Alkylation Operation 32.4.1 Operating Parameters 32.4.2 Fuel Properties References 33. Olefin Oligomerization 33.1 Introduction 33.2 Olefin Oligomerization Technology 33.2.1 Feed Material 33.2.2 Fixed Bed Olefin Oligomerization 33.2.3 Liquid Phase Olefin Oligomerization 33.2.4 Catalyst Selection 33.2.5 Refinery Benzene Reduction 33.3 Reaction Chemistry 33.3.1 Acid Catalysts 33.3.2 Organometallic Catalysts 33.4 Oligomerization Operation 33.4.1 Operating Parameters 33.4.2 Fuel Properties References 34. Etherification 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Etherification Technology 34.2.1 Feed Material 34.2.2 General Description 34.3 Etherification 34.3.1 Reaction Chemistry 34.3.2 Reaction Thermodynamics 34.3.3 Etherification Catalysts 34.4 Etherification Operation 34.4.1 Operating Parameters 34.4.2 Volumetric Yield 34.4.3 Fuel Properties of Alcohols and Ethers References Section 8: Lubricants and Supporting Technologies 35. Lubricant Base Oils 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Lubricant Base Oil Production Technology 35.2.1 Feed Material 35.2.2 Technology Selection 35.2.3 Propane Deasphalting 35.2.4 Solvent Extraction 35.2.5 Solvent Dewaxing 35.2.6 Clay Treating References 36. Supporting Technologies 36.1 Hydrogen Production and Purification 36.2 Light Hydrocarbon Gas Processing 36.3 Acid Gas Removal 36.4 Sulfur Recovery From Acid Gas 36.4.1 Claus Process 36.4.2 Claus Tail Gas Treatment References Appendix A. Definitions Appendix B. Chapter Discussion Appendix C. Chapter Problems

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