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Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvi About the Companion Website xvii 1 Energy and Civilization 1 1.1 Introduction: Motivation 1 1.2 Fossil Fuel 2 1.3 Energy Use and Industrialization 2 1.4 Nuclear Energy 4 1.5 Global Warming 5 1.6 The Age of the Electric Power Grid 9 1.7 Green and Renewable Energy Sources 10 1.8 Hydrogen 11 1.9 Solar and Photovoltaic 11 1.9.1 Wind Power 12 1.9.2 Geothermal 13 1.10 Biomass 13 1.11 Ethanol 13 1.12 Energy Units and Conversions 13 1.13 Estimating the Cost of Energy 17 1.14 New Oil Boom-Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) 20 1.15 Estimation of Future CO2 21 1.16 The Paris Agreement | UNFCCC 22 1.17 Energy Utilization and Economic Growth 23 1.18 Conclusion 23 Problems 24 Further Reading 26 2 Power Grids 28 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 Electric Power Grids 29 2.2.1 Background 29 2.2.2 The Construction of a Power Grid System 29 2.3 Basic Concepts of Power Grids 33 2.3.1 Common Terms 33 2.3.2 Calculating Power Consumption 33 2.4 Load Models 49 2.5 Transformers in Electric Power Grids 53 2.5.1 A Short History of Transformers 54 2.5.2 Transmission Voltage 54 2.5.3 Transformers 55 2.6 Modeling a Microgrid System 59 2.6.1 The Per Unit System 60 2.7 Modeling Three-Phase Transformers 69 2.8 Tap-Changing Transformers 72 2.9 Modeling Transmission Lines 74 Problems 87 References 92 3 Modeling of Converters in Power Grid Distributed Generation Systems 93 3.1 Introduction 93 3.2 Single-Phase DC/AC Inverters with Two Switches 94 3.3 Single-Phase DC/AC Inverters with a Four-Switch Bipolar Switching Method 106 3.3.1 Pulse Width Modulation with Unipolar Voltage Switching for a Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter 110 3.4 Three-Phase DC/AC Inverters 113 3.5 Pulse Width Modulation Methods 114 3.5.1 The Triangular Method 114 3.5.2 The Identity Method 119 3.6 Analysis of DC/AC Three-Phase Inverters 120 3.7 Microgrid of Renewable Energy Systems 130 3.8 DC/DC Converters in Green Energy Systems 133 3.8.1 The Step-Up Converter 134 3.8.2 The Step-Down Converter 144 3.8.3 The Buck-Boost Converter 151 3.9 Rectifiers 156 3.10 Pulse Width Modulation Rectifiers 160 3.11 A Three-Phase Voltage Source Rectifier Utilizing Sinusoidal PWM Switching 163 3.12 The Sizing of an Inverter for Microgrid Operation 167 3.13 The Sizing of a Rectifier for Microgrid Operation 169 3.14 The Sizing of DC/DC Converters for Microgrid Operation 170 Problems 171 References 176 4 Smart Power Grid Systems 177 4.1 Introduction 177 4.2 Power Grid Operation 178 4.3 Vertically and Market-Structured Power Grid 184 4.4 The Operations Control of a Power Grid 187 4.5 Load Frequency Control 187 4.6 Automatic Generation Control 193 4.7 Operating Reserve Calculation 198 4.8 Basic Concepts of a Smart Power Grid 199 4.9 The Load Factor 206 4.10 The Load Factor and Real-Time Pricing 209 4.11 A Cyber-Controlled Smart Grid 212 4.12 Smart Grid Development 214 4.13 Smart Microgrid Renewable and Green Energy Systems 216 4.14 A Power Grid Steam Generator 223 4.15 Power Grid Modeling 234 Problems 240 References 245 5 Solar Energy Systems 247 5.1 Introduction 247 5.2 The Solar Energy Conversion Process: Thermal Power Plants 251 5.3 Photovoltaic Power Conversion 253 5.4 Photovoltaic Materials 253 5.5 Photovoltaic Characteristics 255 5.6 Photovoltaic Efficiency 258 5.7 The Design of Photovoltaic Systems 262 5.8 The Modeling of a Photovoltaic Module 277 5.9 The Measurement of Photovoltaic Performance 278 5.10 The Maximum Power Point of a Photovoltaic Array 278 5.11 A Battery Storage System 292 5.12 A Storage System Based on a Single-Cell Battery 294 5.13 The Energy Yield of a Photovoltaic Module and the Angle of Incidence 317 5.14 The State of Photovoltaic Generation Technology 318 Problems 318 References 326 6 Microgrid Wind Energy Systems 328 6.1 Introduction 328 6.2 Wind Power 329 6.3 Wind Turbine Generators 331 6.4 The Modeling of Induction Machines 334 6.4.1 Calculation of Slip 343 6.4.2 The Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Machine 343 6.5 Power Flow Analysis of an Induction Machine 346 6.6 The Operation of an Induction Generator 351 6.7 Dynamic Performance 366 6.8 The Doubly Fed Induction Generator 372 6.9 Brushless Doubly Fed Induction Generator Systems 375 6.10 Variable-Speed Permanent Magnet Generators 376 6.11 A Variable-Speed Synchronous Generator 377 6.12 A Variable-Speed Generator with a Converter Isolated from the Grid 378 Problems 380 References 384 7 Load Flow Analysis of Power Grids and Microgrids 386 7.1 Introduction 386 7.2 Voltage Calculation in Power Grid Analysis 387 7.3 The Power Flow Problem 391 7.4 Load Flow Study as a Power System Engineering Tool 392 7.5 Bus Types 392 7.6 General Formulation of the Power Flow Problem 397 7.7 Algorithm for Calculation of Bus Admittance Model 400 7.7.1 The History of Algebra, Algorithm, and Number Systems 400 7.7.2 Bus Admittance Algorithm 402 7.8 The Bus Impedance Algorithm 403 7.9 Formulation of the Load Flow Problem 404 7.10 The Gauss-Seidel YBUS Algorithm 407 7.11 The Gauss-Seidel ZBUS Algorithm 412 7.12 Comparison of the YBUS and ZBUS Power Flow Solution Methods 419 7.13 The Synchronous and Asynchronous Operation of Microgrids 420 7.14 An Advanced Power Flow Solution Method: The Newton-Raphson Algorithm 422 7.14.1 The Newton-Raphson Algorithm 425 7.15 General Formulation of the Newton-Raphson Algorithm 430 7.16 The Decoupled Newton-Raphson Algorithm 434 7.17 The Fast Decoupled Load Flow Algorithm 435 7.18 Analysis of a Power Flow Problem 436 Problems 448 References 461 8 Power Grid and Microgrid Fault Studies 462 8.1 Introduction 462 8.2 Power Grid Fault Current Calculation 464 8.3 Symmetrical Components 468 8.4 Sequence Networks for Power Generators 473 8.5 The Modeling of Wind and PV Generating Stations 476 8.6 Sequence Networks for Balanced Three-Phase Transmission Lines 477 8.7 Ground Current Flow in Balanced Three-Phase Transformers 479 8.8 Zero Sequence Network 481 8.8.1 Transformers 481 8.8.2 Load Connections 482 8.8.3 Power Grid 484 8.9 Fault Studies 487 8.9.1 Balanced Three-Phase Fault Analysis 490 8.9.2 Unbalanced Faults 508 8.9.3 Single-Line-to-Ground Faults 508 8.9.4 Double-Line-to-Ground Faults 511 8.9.5 Line-to-Line Faults 513 Problems 527 References 533 9 Smart Devices and Energy Efficiency Monitoring Systems 534 9.1 Introduction 534 9.2 Kilowatt-Hour Measurements 535 9.3 Current and Voltage Measurements 536 9.4 Power Measurements at 60 or 50HZ 537 9.5 Analog-to-Digital Conversions 538 9.6 Root Mean Square (RMS) Measurement Devices 538 9.7 Energy Monitoring Systems 539 9.8 Smart Meters 539 9.9 Power Monitoring and Scheduling 540 9.10 Communication Systems 541 9.11 Network Security and Software 543 9.12 Smartphone Applications 546 9.13 Summary 546 Problems 547 Further Reading 548 10 Load Estimation and Classification 549 10.1 Introduction 549 10.2 Load Estimation of a Residential Load 549 10.3 Service Feeder and Metering 557 10.3.1 Assumed Wattages 557 Problems 560 References 562 11 Energy Saving and Cost Estimation of Incandescent and Light-Emitting Diodes 563 11.1 Building Lighting with Incandescent Bulbs 563 11.2 Comparative Performance of LED, Incandescent, and LFC Lighting 564 11.3 Building Load Estimation 566 11.4 Led Energy Saving 569 11.5 Return on Investment on LED Lighting 571 11.6 Annual Carbon Emissions 572 Problems 572 References 572 Appendix A Complex Numbers 573 Appendix B Transmission Line and Distribution Typical Data 576 Appendix C Energy Yield of Photovoltaic Panels and Angle of Incidence 581 Appendix D Wind Power 594 Index 599

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